A Review of Samples of Essay Letter for College Applications

A Review of Samples of Essay Letter for College Applications Before you make your own application letter, have sometime to ask some of your buddies or you are able to surf on the internet. You're showing you have a true interest in the business and what you can do for them. Though you're already accepted, it's still important to provide a great impression to your new boss and to enable the company know you're serious about doing a great job. The ideal thing you can do to help your job search is to steer clear of cover letter examples all together. Things You Should Know About Samples of Essay Letter for College Applications A quick answer essay provides the college a beneficial window into the applicant's interests. Since our writers are experts in a variety of forms of papers, we understand how to target your college no matter the discipline you chose. Take time to consider about each question allow it to sink in, and ensure your essay actually addresses all components of t he question. You can depend on the very best essay help online. Where to Find Samples of Essay Letter for College Applications There are several different sample job acceptance letters readily available online and deciding upon the best one for you is easy as soon as you know what things to look for. It's very beneficial to take writing apart to be able to see just the way that it accomplishes its objectives. To download, click the image of the sample you need and use. Well-done samples give an education in format. Mention by name certain classes, professors, clubs and activities that you're excited to be a component of. The organization and structure also needs to be given attention. College workshop application letters are made by students who are interested in being part of a particular academic workshop which will be run within the premises of the institution. A college admission application letter is utilized by means of a student who'd love to make an application for an academic slot for a certain course provided by means of a school. If You Read Nothing Else Today, Read This Report on Samples of Essay Letter for College Applications Assuming which you want to get hired by a great company, ordinarily you'll be requested to write an expert goals essay to demonstrate that you're the most appropriate candidate to occupy the available position. Your letter should incorporate the conditions and terms of employment. At times, the simplest emails get the ideal response. Multi-step promotions,'' several letters that offer incremental value each moment, are scarily powerful. Application writing isn't the close of the world and you're able to prepare for it. Second, that you'll be a fantastic fit for the institution. Colleges publish lots and a lot of distinct kinds of things, any of which is beneficial for research. In addition to its growing cultural and ethnic diversity, State University is turning into a master at developing a niche for each and every student. What You Should Do to Find Out About Samples of Essay Letter for College Applications Before You're Left Behind Referring to sample college application essays on the internet is one of the greatest approaches to learn to compose outstanding college admission essays. Besides having an exceptional SAT score, you would have to think of the ideal college essay. Writing the college application essay can be among the most daunting components of applying to college. Writing a fantastic college admission essay requires a lot of creativity. Your college counselor can offer valuable insight into how to enhance your college application essays, so make sure to find feedback on your drafts whenever possible. Many students find it challenging to compose impressive college application essays. Regardless of what college you want to enroll at, you need to compose an admission essay. Just because you've already written a college essay for a single university doesn't mean that it may also apply on your next applications. The History of Samples of Essay Letter for College Applications Refuted It is very important to capture the interest of the admission tutors no matter how strict they may appear to be. If you're going to include details that may directly hit the requirements of the school, then it is easy to get the approvalA that you must be accepted for enrollment. Colleges care about the quantities of acceptances deeply, so it could help to understand you're a sure thing. There's a cutthroat competition in every field for students nowadays.

Societal Standards of Feminine Beauty Essay - 783 Words

While women have made historical strides in the past decades, the culture at large is bound to the narcissistic constraints about how women should look. These unattainable beauty standards, largely proliferated through the media, have drastic impacts on women and their body image. Societal standards of feminine beauty are presented in all forms of popular and alternative media, bombarding women with images that portray the ideal body. Such standards of beauty are almost completely far-fetched for most women. A majority of the celebrities and models seen on television and in advertisements are well below what is considered normal for American women. â€Å"The average American woman is 5’4† tall and weighs 140 pounds, while the average American†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"More than half of teenage girls are, or think they should be, on diets. They want to lose some or all of the 40 pounds that females naturally gain between ages 8 and 14. About 3% of these teens go too far, becoming anorexic or bulimic† (Being Truly Beautiful). Mainstream magazines and advertisements are another potent source of idealized images of women. â€Å"Findings of one study indicate that 83% of teenage girls reported reading fashion magazines for about 4.3 hours each week† (Thompson Heinberg, 1999). Female’s motivation behind reading these magazines and advertisements are to obtain information about beauty, fitness, grooming and style. Magazine and advertisements are marketed to help women better themselves by providing information and products that are supposed to make them look and feel better. â€Å"Women read these magazines with the hope that is they follow the advice given, they will be more acceptable and attractive† (Serder, Female Body Image and the Mass Media: Perspectives on How Women Internalize the Ideal Beauty standard). Marketing strategies lure women into purchasing these forms of media, and most have the potential to be a powerful influence on women’s sense of self-satisfaction with their appearance. The social comparison theory offers some level of explanation for how media images actually come to impact the way women feel about their bodies. â€Å"Social comparison theory examines how individuals evaluate themselves in relation to peers,Show MoreRelatedHow Cosmetics Affect Confidence, Body Esteem, And Self Worth1338 Words   |  6 PagesHow Cosmetics Affect Confidence, Body-Esteem, and Self-Worth Makeup, cosmetics, beauty products, these are seen everywhere in daily life. Cosmetics are used to improve facial features and aesthetic appeal. Cosmetics predate written history. In the name of beauty, extreme lengths have been taken, in order to fulfill societal expectations. How does the cultural focus on physical appearance affect women today? 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Disney’s collection of princesses have spanned over 78 years, from the first generation Disney princess movies (Snow Whi te and the Seven Dwarfs, Cinderella, Sleeping Beauty’s Aurora) to the second generation Disney princess movies (The Little Mermaid, Beauty and the Beast, Mulan, Aladdin’s Jasmine, Pocahontas) to the new era princesses (The Princess and theRead MoreVisual images Reinforce Traditional Gender and Sexuality Stereotypes948 Words   |  4 Pagesmasculine and feminine miens. An examination of print media advertisements highlights the social and cultural ideologies associated with traditional gender roles that are expected and imposed on by society. â€Å"Advertisements are deeply woven into the fabric of Western Culture, drawing on and reinforcing commonly held perceptions and beliefs† of gender and sexuality stereotypes. 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I believe that I could achieve that body from hard work and dieting, but it took years to realize thatRead MoreThe Changing Representations Of Women : The Art Of Hannah Wilke, Lynda Benglis, And Cindy Sherman846 Words   |  4 PagesChanging Representations of Women: The Art of Hannah Wilke, Lynda Benglis, and Cindy Sherman,† â€Å"S.O.S† served to attack societies popular images of women in the media. Wilkes way of presenting her body addresses what is perceived and encouraged as feminine in the phallocratic society. Holt states that by representing the scars on Wilkes body with specifically female genitalia she emphasizes the harmful stigma, which surrounds the idea of being a women; objectified and commoditized by the dominant male

Internationalization Strategies of Midland Hotel

Question: Discuss about the Internationalization Strategies of Midland Hotel. Answer: Introduction: The Midland Hotel is part of the hotel industry with the head office in Manchester, England. The hotel was established in 1903 and it was designed by Architect Charles Trubshaw in Edwardian Baroque style and design. In 2004 the hotel was bought by the Paramount Hotel group and underwent a renovation costing 12 million (Olson, Green, and Hill, 2005). The property has 312 en-suite rooms and 14 suites supported by health club and two restaurants namely the French and Mr. Coopers House Garden to take care of food and beverages needs of the guest. The French was considered to be the first Michelin-starred restaurant in England and provided the finest dining room in Manchester. The other restaurant Mr. Coopers House was renovated in 2013 and provides the best food and beverages to the food lovers in the city. The hotels capitalization is stated as 101 million. The owner define the property as grand that combines decadent glamour with four star facility and providing the customer and guest twenty-first century sophistication. This report explore the internationalization strategy of the hotel and its plan to enter the ASEAN country in particular Singapore that is considered the global business, finance and transport hub with best investment opportunities (Olson, Green, and Hill, 2005). Best Fit Strategy Singapore In the process of planning internationalization it is essential to evaluate the best market entry method establish the business in the foreign market. The various market entry methods available for companies to promote their internationalization plan are exporting, licensing/franchising, joint venture, Greenfield investment and merger acquisition (Green, 2012). Each of the market entry method is evaluated in context to the internationalization plan of Midland Hotel in the ASEAN country Singapore. Exporting This is a market entry method where the company makes the product and services in the home market and then market the product in the international market selected. There are two types of exporting and they are direct exporting and indirect exporting (Das, Roberts,and Tybout, 2007). Direct exporting is the process where the company sells the product in the international market by appointing own representative. Indirect exporting is the process where the company appoints a third party to conduct the sales in the international market. This market entry method involves less risk and investment in the international market so it is the best fit to enter any of the ten Asian countries and suitable for manufacturing business like garments, leather goods and other products that enjoys production competency in the home market (Das, Roberts,and Tybout, 2007). In context to the hotel industry it is not suitable for any of the ASEAN counties as it is not a tangible product. Licensing /Franchising This is a market entry method where the licensor provide the licensee the right to produce and market the product and sue the brand in the foreign market and get a royalty on the sales. This is another method that provides low risk and investment. Franchising is a market entry method similar to licensing and the franchisor package the success formula in the home market in terms of technical knowhow and other ingredients and offer the franchise to the foreign partner for a fee (Perks, 2009). The franchisor also provides training and marketing support. It again is less risky and low investment. The service business and retails successful in the home country expand the business using this method and it provides best fit to enter any ASEAN country. In context to Midland Hotel if they intend to avoid risk and investment they can opt for this method. It proves beneficial if the regulatory environment and other legal system in the country is a complex process. Joint venture This is a market entry method where the two companies company for new company in partnership in the foreign country to operate by sharing the risk in the new market. It also leads to sharing of knowledge and expertise to establish the business and the profit and controlling power is shared between partners as mutually agreed. This method is more risky and involves investment for the company but gives more profit and better controlling power in the foreign market (Perks, 2009). It also takes benefit of the local partner knowledge about the business environment in the foreign market to handle risk and improve the profit. In considering Joint venture as the entry method, the regulatory procedure in the country needs to be evaluated. In context to Midland Hotel it is better option to enter foreign market provided the regulatory environment is favourable. Greenfield Investment This is a market entry method where the company goes for foreign direct investment (FDI) in the foreign country and establishes the business from the ground up and includes production, distribution, marketing and sales. This method involves high investment and risk and provided high profit and controlling power as well (Blomstermo, Deo, and Sallis, 2006). In this method of entry the company needs to evaluate the political, regulatory, economic, socio-cultural and legal environment of the country to understand the risk and investment feasibility in Singapore. In context to Midland Hotel it is again viable option as sit provides complete control of operation, training, sales and control. Merger Acquisition This is a market entry method that promotes the concept of consolidation of the assets of the company. Merger is related with the process where two companies combine to form a single consolidated new entity. On the other hand acquisition is related with the process where one company buy another company and new company is formed in this process (Blomstermo, Deo, and Sallis, 2006). It is a technical process and involves legal and financial expert to complete the process. It provides power and economy of scale and help to reduce competition. This is complex process to enter any ASEAN countries. In context to Midland Hotel this is not a suitable method to enter as it involves time, effort and investment. Singapore According to the survey report of World Bank Singapore is the best country to do business in the world and it has achieved the top position for the 9th consecutive years. This report is based on the 11 criteria set to evaluate the ease of doing business namely dealing with starting business, construction permits, registering property, getting credit for business, getting electricity, protection of minority investors, trading across borders regulation, tax structure, resolving insolvency process, enforcing contracts and labour market related regulation (Chia, 2005). The ranking on each criteria is depicted in the below chart. Singapore scores well in most of the criteria and ranks as the top country with hassle free regulatory norms and business process for any company planning to enter the country. [Figure 1: 1Ranking on doing business Singapore] [Source: Doing business Singapore] Midland Hotel In context to Midland Hotel is the best fit to enter the country and it can further evaluate the business environment to as mentioned below for successfully establishing the business (Chia, 2005). Factors affecting market entry to Singapore Internationalization of Midland Hotel Political environment Low risk Regulatory environment Low risk Economic environment Economy growing at 3.9% and provides stability. Legal environment Singapore provides favourable regulation for international companies. Business culture and social culture Singapore is a multicultural country and enjoys good relation with UK Eight scales of cultural value Communicating, persuading, leading, evaluating, deciding, scheduling, disagreeing and trusting is cordial between UK and Singapore (Karimi, Yusop, and Law, 2010). Transportation Singapore has worlds best infrastructure. Learning opportunity ASEAN, OIC, NAM and UN Protection of intellectual property Governed by the Intellectual property Office of Singapore (IPOS). Singapore ranks 4th in the world and top in Asia in IP protection. Overall value of the investment UNTAD 2015 World Investment Report ranks Singapore as the largest recipient of FDI Labour market Labour force participation rate (LFPR) stands at 68.30% Availability of suitable business partners UK is the third largest trading partner of Singapore (Karimi, Yusop, and Law, 2010). Profit potential Franchise provides lower risk and Joint Venture as entry provide better profit potential compared to exporting or franchising. OK Fit strategy Malaysia ASEAN is promising as far as the tourism industry is concerned and hotel industry is biggest benefiter of this promising trend. According to UNWTO it is estimated that the tourism industry is projected to register a growth rate of 3.8% between 2010 and 2020.Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore received the maximum number of visitors and the research statistics of UNWTO states that international arrivals of tourist to Singapore and Malaysia were 25 million and 11 million respectively for the last two consecutive years. On analyzing the income contribution from the tourism sector it was found that Malaysia received an estimated toUS$21 billion while Singapore generated US$18.9 billion (Lupo et al., 2011). The tourism and culture minister of Malaysia Mohammed Nari Abdel Aziz was positive about the tourism sector and expressed his determination to develop the capacity of the industry to promote the growth and sustainability. Therefore it makes sense for Midland Hotel, a leading player in the hotel industry to consider Malaysia as the OK fit country for internationalization of their business after the best fit country Singapore. The next step in internationalization strategy after selecting the destination is deciding on the market entry strategy to enter the international market. In this regard Midland Hotel has various market entry methods as discussed above namely exporting, licensing/franchising, joint venture, Greenfield investment and merger acquisition (Lupo et al., 2011). The different entry method has its own advantages and limitation in terms of risk, profit, investment and control power associated with the market entry strategy as discussed in the above section. In context to Midland Hotel it is felt that Joint venture with local partner in Malaysia is suitable option as it provides better controlling power but requires investment. This again is related with foreign direct investment (FDI) policy of the government of Malaysia. In this it is essential that Midland Hotel needs to conduct the environmental analysis of Malaysia in context to the political system, regulatory environment related with hotel industry, economic system, legal system, business culture and social culture and relationship between UK and Malaysia, eight scales of cultural value namely (communicating, persuading, leading, evaluating, deciding, scheduling, disagreeing and trusting), transportation costs/value to weight ratio, learning opportunity of Malaysian market, protection of intellectual property in the country, overall value of the investment based on foreign exchange rates, labour market status of Malaysia, availability of suitable business partners like (suppliers, partners, customers) to form the joint venture in the country and profit potential for each entry method (Lupo et al., 2011). Factors affecting market entry to Malaysia Internationalization of Midland Hotel Political environment Medium risk Regulatory environment Medium risk Economic environment Economy growing at 6% , second highest in ASEAN Legal environment High priority to security and stability Business culture and social culture Based on the principle of neutrality and enjoys good relation with UK Eight scales of cultural value Healthy business relation with UK Transportation It is ranked 19th in the world in the quality of road, air and sea. Learning opportunity ASEAN, OIC, NAM and UN Protection of intellectual property Governed by the Intellectual property corporation of Malaysia (MyIPO) Overall value of the investment UNTAD 2015 World Investment Report ranks Malaysia as the 5th largest recipient of FDI Labour market Labour force participation rate (LFPR) stands at 67.2% Availability of suitable business partners Government support tax resident companies in Malaysia. Profit potential Joint Venture as entry provide better profit potential compared to exporting or franchising. Bad fit Strategy Myanmar Of the ten countries comprising ASEAN it is Myanmar that is stated as the worst countries for companies planning to expand business to foreign countries based on the report of World Bank ranking. The report ranked Myanmar 182nd from the 189th nations that forms part of the report. According to the report it is one of the difficulty countries for doing business and it is based on 11 areas of business regulation set as criteria for deciding the investment friendly environment (Holliday, 2005). The 11 areas include dealing with starting business, construction permits, registering property, getting credit for business, getting electricity, protection of minority investors, trading across borders regulation, tax structure, resolving insolvency process, enforcing contracts and labour market related regulation. In this regard the distance to frontier score set standard by comparing the economies of the country with regard to the regulatory best practice and how it facilitate the internation al business planning to establish their business in the country and Myanmar stands last in that comparison done for the 10 ASEAN countries. In context to Midland Hotel it is essential that the marketing team needs to evaluate the ease of doing business in Myanmar with regard to the distance to frontier score and also evaluate the business environment in the country. In this regard both ranking on doing business in Myanmar and distance to frontier score on doing business establish the fact that is bad fit for Midland Hotel to internationalization in the ASEAN country of Myanmar based on 11 areas of evaluation (Holliday, 2005). The country scores are poor for international players making it difficult to establish the business in the country. The individual score of the country in the various criteria are depicted in the chart and it is comparison to the 189 countries that for part of this world bank data. [Figure 2Ranking on doing business Myanmar] [Source: Doing business Myanmar] International business strategy Companies that plan internationalization confronts two kinds of competitive pressures in the foreign market and they are pressures for cost reductions and pressure for locally responsive and both these lead to contradictory demands on the company. The pressures for cost reductions are more pertinent in the commodity kind products that cater to universal needs and in such condition pricing factor is the tool for competition (Peng, and Khoury, 2009). The pressure for local responsiveness is the result of difference in consumer tastes and preferences, traditional practices and infrastructure, distribution channels and demand from host government. [Source: International business strategy] Based on the above factors company can choose one of the four strategy and they are Global standardization strategy This is international business strategy where the company promote enhancing profit growth and profitability by applying the cost reductions strategy and it dome improving the economies of scale, economy of location and learning effects (Peng, and Khoury, 2009). The objective is using low-cost strategy in the international market. This is applicable when demand for local responsiveness is low while cost reduction pressures are high. Localization strategy This strategy promotes enhancing profitability by making the products and services of the company to match the tastes and preferences in various national markets. This is applicable where the tastes and preference of customers are different substantially while cost reduction pressure is low (Peng, Wang, and Jiang, 2008). Transactional strategy This strategy promote low costs with the help of location economies, scale of economy and learning effects and product differentiation to match local taste and preferences across different market simultaneously. This is done by nurturing multidirectional skills flow between the various subsidiaries in the operational network of the company globally (Peng, Wang, and Jiang, 2008). This strategy is useful when both pressure for cost reduction and local responsiveness is high. International strategy This international business strategy promote the same product used in the domestic market in the international market with some customization done to suit local appeal This strategy generally used by the company where the pressures for cost reduction and pressure for local responsiveness both are low in the foreign market (Kalinic, Sarasvathy, and Forza, 2014). On evaluating the international business strategy of Midland Hotel with respect to the two pressures in the international market namely pressures of cost reduction and pressures of local responsiveness, the most suitable strategy for the hotel is the global standardization strategy. The justification for selecting this strategy is that the service provided by hotel industry is universal and the taste and preference of guest are same globally so it the pricing strategy that provides the tool to establish Midland Hotel in Singapore market (Kalinic, Sarasvathy, and Forza, 2014). Again Singapore is the global business, finance and transportation hub in ASEAN attracting investment globally and most of the hotels in the country offer the best of service to the clientele so it is obvious Midland Hotel needs to match the quality standard to launch and establish the business in this international market. It is can sue the localization strategy in the next phase once the hotel brand is establi shed and understands the nature of clientele visiting the country. Happening in the news - Business environment of Singapore To identify the attractiveness of Singapore as the best fit country for Midland Hotel it is essential to analyze the business environment like the political environment, economic environment and social environment of the country Political environment Singapores governance is based on the populist model of politics and it promotes the long term interest of country. In addition Singapore government is considered clean, realistic and effective and works in accordance with the global best practice. The country is impacted by external trade commerce and susceptible to geo-politics (Frynas, Mellahi, and Pigman, 2006). On examining the current news related with political environment of the country it was found that there no political trouble and highly attractive for international players like Midland Hotel as World Bank recognize Singapore to be bve easiest country to conduct business and top international meeting city attracting business visitor and guest globally. Economic environment The recent news related with the review of Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) state that the slow growth for the country will continue owing to the cyclical factors.MAS take a neutral stance with respect to the monetary policy keeping nominal effective exchange rate (NEER) to zero for the country (Cavusgil et al., 2014). The China slowdown impacts the economy of the country as they are the largest importing and exporting partner. MAS expect the economy of the country will exhibit 1% to 3% growth. Midland Hotel needs to consider this economic environment while launching the business in the country. Social environment In context to the social changes in Singapore there is no current news but the countrys social environment is multi-cultural, cosmopolitan with materialistic inclination for good life and with the advent of technology people use internet and mobile phones and explore online shopping (Johnson, Lenartowicz, and Apud,2006). This provides favourable social environment for Midland Hotel to enter the market and establish the business. Conclusion The report focussed on the internationalization plan of Midland Hotel and its plan to enter the ASEAN market particularly Singapore that is considered the best place in the world to don business. In this regard the market entry method namely exporting, licensing/franchising, joint venture, Greenfield investment and merger acquisition and the suitable market entry method Midland Hotel to enter Singapore market. It is decided by evaluating the best ft, OK fit and bad fit strategy for the country and examining the international business strategy namely global standardization, transactional, international and localization strategies (Cavusgil et al., 2014). Based on the evaluation it is observed that Singapore provides the best fit for Midland Hotel to execute its internationalization plan and global standardization is most suitable strategy for the hotel in the foreign market. On the other hand it is suggested that localization strategy can be used by the company in the second phase. O n the same note Malaysia proves to be OK fit country while Myanmar is bad fit and worst country internationalization so Midland Hotel should avoid it. References Blomstermo, A., Deo Sharma, D. and Sallis, J., 2006. Choice of foreign market entry mode in service firms. International Marketing Review, 23(2), pp.211-229. Bosma, N.S. and Levie, J., 2010. Global Entrepreneurship Monitor 2009 Executive Report. Cavusgil, S.T., Knight, G., Riesenberger, J.R., Rammal, H.G. and Rose, E.L., 2014. International business. Pearson Australia. Chia, S.Y., 2005. The Singapore model of industrial policy: past evolution and current thinking. Inter-American Development Bank. Das, S., Roberts, M.J. and Tybout, J.R., 2007. Market entry costs, producer heterogeneity, and export dynamics. Econometrica, 75(3), pp.837-873. Frynas, J.G., Mellahi, K. and Pigman, G.A., 2006. First mover advantages in international business and firmà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ specific political resources. Strategic Management Journal, 27(4), pp.321-345. Green, M.F., 2012. Measuring and assessing internationalization. NAFSA: Association of International Educators, 1, pp.1-26. Holliday, I., 2005. Doing business with rights violating regimes corporate social responsibility and Myanmars military junta. Journal of Business Ethics, 61(4), pp.329-342. Johnson, J.P., Lenartowicz, T. and Apud, S., 2006. Cross-cultural competence in international business: Toward a definition and a model. Journal of International Business Studies, 37(4), pp.525-543. Kalinic, I., Sarasvathy, S.D. and Forza, C., 2014. Expect the unexpected: Implications of effectual logic on the internationalization process. International Business Review, 23(3), pp.635-647. Karimi, M.S., Yusop, Z. and Law, S.H., 2010. Location decision for foreign direct investment in ASEAN countries: A TOPSIS approach. International Research Journal of Finance and Economics, 36(1), pp.196-207. Lupo, D., Mahan, V., Ong, G., Sacco, C., Traylor, A. and Meraz, J., 2011. Doing Business in Malaysia. Culture Religion Review Journal, 2011(4). Olson, C.L., Green, M.F. and Hill, B.A., 2005. Building a strategic framework for comprehensive internationalization (Vol. 1). Washington, DC: American Council on Education. Peng, M.W. and Khoury, T.A., 2009. Unbundling the Institutionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Based View of International Business Strategy. Peng, M.W., Wang, D.Y. and Jiang, Y., 2008. An institution-based view of international business strategy: A focus on emerging economies. Journal of international business studies, 39(5), pp.920-936. Peng, M.W., Wang, D.Y. and Jiang, Y., 2008. An institution-based view of international business strategy: A focus on emerging economies. Journal of international business studies, 39(5), pp.920-936. Perks, K.J., 2009. Influences on international market entry method decisions by European entrepreneurs. International Journal of Entrepreneurship, 13, p.1.

Pygmies Essays - African Pygmies, Mbuti People, Ef People

Pygmies Pygmy groups are scattered throughout equatorial Africa, from Cameroon in the west to Zambia in the southeast. In Zaire, there are three main groups of Pygmies: the Tswa in the west, the Twa between Lake Kivu and Lake Tanganyika, and the Mbuti (also referred to as Bambuti or BaMbuti) of the Ituri Forest. According to Schebesta, the author of the earliest reliable reports, only the Mbuti are true Pygmies, i.e., under 150 cm. in height and relatively unmixed with neighboring peoples. The other groups are referred to as Pygmoids, being highly intermixed with other peoples both physically and culturally (Turnbull 1965A: 159-B). The following summary refers only to the Mbuti Pgymies of the Ituri Forest in Zaire. The Mbuti are located at lat. 0 degrees-3 degrees N and long. 26 degrees-30 degrees E. Their territory is a primary rain forest. The Mbuti have conventionally been divided into three groups, which are distinct from each other linguistically, economically, and geographically. Each of the three groups speaks a different language (which corresponds to the language spoken by neighboring villagers), practices different hunting techniques, and is territorially distinct. The Aka speak the Mangbetu language (Sudanic family), hunt primarily with spears, and live in the north. These spear-hunters have not been extensively studied. The Efe speak the Lese language (Sudanic family), are archers, and are located in the east. The Efe were studied by Schebesta. The Sua speak the Bira language (Bantu branch of the Benue-Congo family), hunt with nets, and live to the south. They were studied by Putnam and Turnbull. The most profound difference between the three groups, the linguistic difference, is, according to Turnbull, of recent origin and is purely accidental (Turnbull 1965B 22-23). Furthermore, in spite of the fact that the three languages are very different, there are enough similarities in intonation to make it possible for Pygmies to recognize, if not comprehend, each other. All of the Pygmies of the Ituri Forest recognize themselves by the term Mbuti, and the only political identity they have is in opposition to the village cultivators. The Mbuti as a whole are clearly distinct from these village neighbors both racially and culturally, and, Turnbull says, the economic differences between the three Mbuti groups mask a basic structural unity (Turnbull 1965B: 22-23). Since there has never been an official demographic census, it is impossible to give an accurate estimate of the total Mbuti population. From discussion with missionaries and administrators and from his own experience, however, Turnbull guessed that the population was approximately 40,000 in 1958 (Turnbull 1965B: 26). The Mbuti live in territorially defined nomadic bands. The membership of these bands is very fluid. Bands have no formal political structure; there are no chiefs, and there is no council. An informal consensus among old respected men is the basis of decisions affecting the entire camp. In spite of Turnbull's insistence on basic structural unity, the differences in hunting techniques aqppear to have considerable effect upon the nature of the band organization. Net hunting is a cooperative venture, requiring the cooperation of the whole band, including the women and children. Archery, on the other hand, is primarily a family venture, requiring only two or three men. The most obvious distinction resulting from the economic differences is that of band size. Archer bands average about 6 huts per band, while net-hunting bands average about 15 huts. The Mbuti maintain relationships with surrounding village cultivators whose languages the Mbuti have adopted. Many accounts indicate that the Mbuti are highly acculturated and have adopted many features of villager lifestyle beyond language, such as the clan system and certain religious observances. Turnbull feels that these features are quite superficial, however. The relationship between the Mbuti and the villagers is maintained on several different levels, centering around trade. The Pygmies bring the villagers honey and meat in return for plantation products. This economic exchange can occur on several levels: between the band and the village as a whole (capita/chief), between lineage and lineage (lineage elder/Kpara), or between individuals (kare/kare). The first type of relationship does not occur very often, exchanges being more easily conducted on an interpersonal basis. The lineage relationship is hereditary on both sides. The kare brotherhood is established in nkumbi initiations. In the nkumbi initiation, male villagers and Mbuti are circumcised. The relationship established in the initiation is continued throughout life and centers around economic exchange. The religious life of the Mbuti is not at all clear. Early reports state that they had no religion at all, and later reports dwell on whether or not the Mbuti relationship to the supernatural structurally constitutes religion (usually defined by belief in one supreme being) or magic. In